Not every computer failure is caused by a software issue. Many problems that appear to be related to Windows are actually caused by some kind of hardware malfunction or by a conflict between two or more incompatible hardware components inside the computer. This article describes many of the most common problems that you might encounter when you try to add, move, or change a component inside your computer. Most of these problems have relatively easy solutions if you know where to look. Finding and fixing hardware problems requires a different set of trouble- shooting tools and techniques from the methods we’ve been using to deal with Windows and other software. When you’re dealing with physical devices and components, it’s almost always possible to either physically examine the suspect part or swap it out with another piece. Sometimes a hardware failure is easy to spot because there’s some kind of clear physical evidence that a component has gone bad. Clear signs that the apparent problem was caused by hardware, not software, include a con- nector that has become unplugged and a blackened area on a printed circuit board (caused by burned insulation). But just as often, the difference between a software problem and a hardware failure is not that easy to identify. For example, if an audio player or a video image fails, the problem could be caused by either a device driver (software) or a damaged controller card or other hardware. If a problem has no obvious cause (such as a melted component on a printed circuit board or a plug or jumper in the wrong place), it’s good practice to eliminate a possible software glitch as the source of the problem. First try updating or reinstalling the device driver software before you replace any hardware.

Problems with New Hardware

It’s a unique feeling when you install a drive, memory module, or mother- board, connect up all the cables, and turn on the computer . . . and the computer just sits there, doing nothing. Adding, moving, or replacing a major hardware component in your computer can provide several opportunities for trouble. Most new-hardware problems are relatively easy to fix. Most often, either the cables or jumpers are set incorrectly, or an electrical short circuit is causing the device to fail, or a new component is not compatible with the rest of the equipment inside the computer. Or of course, it’s always possible that the new device is DOA dead on arrival right out of the box because of a defective electronic component or faulty assembly, but you probably won’t discover that until you eliminate the usual installation errors.

Hardware Troubleshooting

A hardware failure might present itself as a complete failure, or it could appear as reduced performance. For example, a video monitor might not display any image at all, it could lose one or more of the separate colors that it blends to create full-color images, or it might compress the image on the screen into a small horizontal band at the center of the screen. When a network component such as a modem or a router breaks down, your computer could completely fail to exchange data with the Internet or your local network, or it might reduce the data transfer rate to a fraction of its original speed. The best way to identify a hardware problem is to isolate the problem to a single component, cable, module, or connection. When you evaluate a possible hardware problem in a peripheral device, try to identify and examine each component separately. For example, if your monitor goes dark, check the video card or controller inside the computer, the cable from the computer to the monitor, and the monitor itself. If you don’t hear any sound coming from the speakers, look for trouble in the sound card, the cables, and each of the speakers. Formal troubleshooting methods include replacing individual com- ponents, testing suspect devices on another computer, and dividing a circuit or a signal path into smaller segments. However, just about every experienced service technician also follows another important rule: Look for a cheap and simple solution first.

Look for a Simple Fix

Before you pull out the test equipment and start replacing circuit cards or other components, make sure the problem was not caused by something you can fix easily, like a power switch that is turned off or an unplugged cable. You should try this kind of repair first for two reasons: if it solves the problem, you can be back to work in just a few minutes, and you won’t have to waste time with more complicated troubleshooting that doesn’t accomplish anything. Here are some of the easy-to-solve problems that you should check before moving on to a more formal troubleshooting routine:

Is the computer turned on? How about the other devices? Is power connected? Is the AC power plugged in? Are the batteries dead? Are all the other cables securely connected? Check all the cable connec- tors plugged into the computer’s case, all the internal cables connected to the motherboard, and all the other devices inside the case. Are the controller cards and other expansion boards firmly in place? Are all the cable connectors and jumpers in the right places? Is there a loose screw or other part rattling round inside the case? Pick up each device and gently shake it to make sure. A screw or other metal part could create a short circuit that causes an electrical device to fail. Is an adjustment, such as a volume control or brightness control, turned all the way down? If a problem appears to be in one of the PCI cards mounted onto the motherboard, try moving the card to a different PCI socket. Is there a software control that has disabled the device? For sound, check the Mute options and levels in the Volume Control window; for video, look in Display Properties Settings to make sure the display is active. On all devices, look in the Device Manager (Start Run devmgmt.msc) for a yellow question mark (?) or a red exclamation point (!) next to the name of a device.

Replace and Test Each Component

If you have a spare cable, video card, or other component, try removing the one that might have failed and installing the spare. If the problem disappears, you can be pretty certain that the old part was causing it. If the problem remains, replace the original part and try a different component.

NOTE Be sure the replacement is similar to the original. For example, don’t tr y to install an SATA drive if your computer’s motherboard only uses IDE drives. Don’t try to force a video card designed for a PCI socket into an AGP slot. If you’re replacing an IDE drive (whether it’s a hard drive, CD drive, or some other type), make sure the jumper settings (master or slave) are identical to the settings on the original device. For each component you want to test, the process should include these steps:

1. Turn off the computer and all the devices connected to the computer, and then remove the suspect device or part.

2. Install a replacement for the part you removed in Step 1.

3. Turn on the computer and the other devices, and check whether the original problem is still there.

If the problem remains, replace the component, remove another component, and test the computer again. It’s important to replace and test components one at a time, rather than simply throwing a complete set of spares into the broken computer all at once. If you don’t check each component separately, you might restore the computer’s functions, but you will never know which of the components you removed was the source of the problem. In other words, all of the pieces you replaced will be suspect, which means that you will either end up returning one or more broken components to your collection of spares, or you will have thrown away one or more perfectly good parts.

Move the Device to Another Computer

Sometimes it’s easier to connect a suspect component to a working computer rather than replacing the item on the broken machine. This approach is particularly useful when you’re testing relatively large devices like keyboards, monitors, and modems that connect to the computer, and the computer’s motherboard, through external cables. For example, if your keyboard stops working even after you turn the computer off and back on again, try conecting it to another computer. If the keyboard works on the second computer, you can eliminate that keyboard as the source of the problem. If it still doesn’t work on the second computer, you can usually deduce that the keyboard was faulty. When you test something on a second computer, however, make sure you check the obvious settings: if there’s a power switch, confirm that it is turned on; if the device uses external power, be sure that it is plugged in to a working AC outlet; and if the device requires a device driver, install the driver on the second machine before you assume that the device itself is broken.

Divide the Circuit

Dividing the circuit is an old telephone technician’s method for finding a defective component in a communications circuit as quickly and efficiently as possible. In certain situations, such as troubleshooting a LAN, it can also be helpful for finding computer problems. In simple terms, you divide a system into two segments and test each half. One segment will work properly, and the other will not. Divide the defective segment again, and test each of those segments. Repeat until you have isolated the problem to a single component. For example, a broadband DSL connection to the Internet. Your computer connects through a LAN router to a DSL modem, which uses a telephone line to connect to the telephone company’s nearest central office. At the central office, the line connects to a device called the digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) that passes the signal onward to the Internet.

If the connection fails, a service technician might start troubleshooting the line by sending you a series of test signals that move through the entire circuit, from the Internet all the way to your computer. If you don’t receive them, the next step could be to try sending tests from the ISP to the central office and from the central office to your computer. If you don’t receive the test from the central office, the technician will tell you to watch the lights on your DSL modem as another test comes through. If the lights don’t flash, the modem didn’t receive a signal, so you have isolated the problem to the link between the central office and the modem. To apply this technique to a computer problem, start by making a list of all the components in the chain between the apparent failure and the com- puter’s motherboard. The analogy to a communications circuit may not always be perfect, but it can often help you isolate the problem. For example, if your computer stops playing music or other sounds, the list might look like this:

Speakers Cables from speakers to sound card (if they’re not permanently attached to the speakers) Sound card Motherboard To split the chain, unplug the speaker cable from the back panel of the computer, and plug it into a different computer. If the speakers still don’t work, you now know that the problem is either in the speakers or the cable. Now try the same speakers with a different cable. If they work this time, you have isolated the problem to the cable. If the speakers and the cable work on the second computer, you can make an educated guess that the problem is in either the sound card or the motherboard. Here’s another example: When you turn on the computer, an error message tells you that the computer can’t find your C: drive. In this case, there are several components in the chain: the motherboard, the BIOS (which is software that controls hardware), the cable from the motherboard to the

a connector that has come loose or a plug that is not aligned properly with the pins on the motherboard). If the same error message appears after you replace the cable, you have isolated the problem to either the BIOS or the drive. In this case, the problem might be either hardware or software if the BIOS does not automatically detect the drive, check the BIOS settings first, and then examine the drive.

Repair or Replace?

Isolating the problem to a single component is important, but it’s only the first step in fixing it. Now you must decide whether it makes more sense to repair the broken device or simply install a replacement. The choice depends on the amount of time it will take to perform the repair and the cost of the new part. Sometimes, the choice is obvious: If you discover that a connector has shaken loose from a socket, it will take just a few seconds to plug it back in and restart the computer. But if a power surge has fried a dozen resistors and integrated circuits on your video card, it’s easier to install a new card. As a rule of thumb, if a repair requires a soldering iron, or if you see signs of burned components on a printed circuit board, you’re better off replacing the part. If a device or a component is still covered by the manufacturer’s warranty, the choice is obvious: remove it and send it back to the factory.

Look in the user manual or the manufacturer’s website for information about obtaining warranty service; most companies require a return authorization before they’ll accept a broken device for service. When they receive your shipment, they’ll either repair the original item or send you a new one, usually within a few ays. For small and inexpensive parts, you might not even have to return the broken part when you telephone or e-mail the manufacturer’s support center, they’ll just send it to you right away.

For relatively cheap parts, it’s just not worth the time and trouble to repair them. You have better things to do with your life than spending an hour to repair a $3 cable or a $15 keyboard, especially if you have to buy $35 worth of tools to perform the repair. If you can’t fix a part yourself, check the cost of a replacement before you commit to a repair. Unfortunately, the cost of repairing a more expensive device, like a video monitor or a motherboard, can often be more than the price of a new one. At some point, the cost of repairing or replacing individual parts can be as much or more than simply buying a whole new computer, especially if you can move your existing video monitor to the new system. Obviously, this isn’t always true, but it’s something to consider before you spend a lot of money on an expensive new video controller card or some other major component or, worse, replacing several parts at the same time. If your computer is more than two or three years old, even a relatively inexpensive new computer will probably give you better performance than the old one could, even after you replace a bunch of individual components.

Microsoft’s Product Activation: Not a Big Deal Beginning with Windows XP, Microsoft has introduced an anti-piracy scheme that requires every Windows user to contact the mother corporation within the first 30 days after installation, and again whenever a major hardware change occurs. This is intended to prevent people from installing the same copy of Windows on more than one computer. Windows Product Activation only applies to copies of Windows sold at retail and some versions that come pre- installed on new computers. If your company has a volume licensing agree- ment, or if you bought your computer from a major manufacturer such as Dell or IBM, you won’t have to worry about activation unless you add or replace several major hardware components, such as a hard drive or a motherboard. At best, activation is a minor nuisance that allows Microsoft to protect their intellectual property; at worst, it provides an opportunity for the world’s largest and most profitable software company to inspect the contents of your computer and track the way you’re using their products and those of their competitors. Either way, Microsoft has a legitimate gripe against people who try to install Windows without paying for it. Without some kind of authentication, it would be easy enough to buy a single copy of Windows (or any other program) and install it on two or more computers. The fine print (which almost everybody accepts without reading) limits the use of the software to a single computer, but Bill Gates has enough money already, doesn’t he? Well, maybe, but the fact remains that Microsoft has both a legal and an ethical right to restrict the use of a single copy of Windows XP to just one computer. They spent a lot of time and money to create Windows, and they can decide how they want it used. With Windows Product Activation, Microsoft has an effective way to enforce that restriction.

Like it or not, you really don’t have any choice about activation. If you want to use Windows XP, you’ll have to activate it. And you can’t buy just one copy of the Windows upgrade package and install it on all of your home computers, your laptop, and the one in your office. It is possible to buy up to three additional Windows licenses at a slight discount. Each license has a different Product Key, and each license allows you to install Windows on one additional computer. In other words, you’ll pay about 85 percent of the original price for a code that allows you to load the same copy of Windows on another machine. For more information about additional licenses, take a look at www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/pro/ howtobuy/addlic.asp. If you have five or more computers, you might qualify for a volume license at a significant discount. You can find information about volume licenses at www.microsoft.com/licensing.

How Product Activation Works

Each retail copy of Windows XP comes with a unique Product Key printed on a sticker in the package that contains the CD. You will enter the Product Key during Windows installation. Microsoft will also ask for the Product Key when you request technical support. During product activation, Windows uses the Product Key to create a product ID code and a “hardware hash” code that contains information about eleven different hardware characteristics:

The display adapter The SCSI adapter (if any) The IDE adapter The MAC address of the network adapter The amount of RAM memory The type of processor The processor’s serial number The type of hard drive The hard drive’s volume serial number The CD or DVD drive Whether the computer uses a docking station or PCMCIA socket

There are two ways to submit product activation information: through the Internet as digital data, or by talking with a Microsoft customer service representative by telephone. The Internet option is a lot easier and faster, but it’s not always practical. Windows will ask if you want to run activation during Windows Setup, but you probably won’t be able to establish an Internet connection until setup is complete unless you’re upgrading an existing system. So it’s often best to skip activation until after you have configured your network link or set up your dial-up Internet account on this computer. Remember, you have thirty days to complete activation, so waiting an hour or two won’t make any difference. When you do connect to the Product Activation server through the Internet, Windows will send a string of digital data from your computer to Microsoft, and it will receive a confirmation packet in the form of a digital certificate. The whole process is automatic and takes no more than a minute or two. If you don’t have a way to connect the computer to the Internet, you can activate by telephone. The telephone activation option in the Activation Wizard will display a list of countries and provide a telephone number for the country you select. When you call that number, a customer service representative will ask for the Product Key and the 50-digit installation ID code that Windows provides in the Activation Wizard. Windows divides both the installation ID code and the confirmation code into short segments, so you won’t have to worry about mangling an outrageously long code number. After the representative confirms that the code is valid, he or she will give you a 42-digit confirmation code to type into your computer. If Microsoft receives an activation request for a product ID code that has already been activated, it will compare the information in the hardware hash to the earlier activation. If all the hardware is the same, there’s no problem, and the activation goes through. But if the hardware hash shows that four or more elements have changed, the activation system won’t return a confir- mation because it assumes you’re trying to use the same copy of Windows on more than one machine.

What Happens If I Upgrade My Hardware?

When Windows Product Activation detects one, two, or three hardware changes, it accepts the changes and reactivates your system, just as if there had been no changes. So you can add more memory or a bigger hard drive to your computer, or replace the video card and go on with your life without any interference from Microsoft. But if you try to change too many components at the same time, or if you try to install an existing copy of Windows on a new computer after the old one was destroyed or stolen, the online activation system will reject your request. In most computers, it takes four or more changes before Windows refuses to activate. However, the Windows activation system will automatically accept major changes (four or more of the items that trigger reactivation) through the Internet up to four times a year. If online activation rejects your request, Windows will display a telephone number and ask you to call and explain. The customer service people who answer those calls are pretty good about accepting reasonable stories, so a major hardware update (such as installing a new motherboard, a new processor, more memory, and a new hard drive at the same time, or loading Windows on a replacement for a stolen laptop) should not be a problem. But if you try to activate the same Product Key on two or three (or a dozen) completely different machines within a short period of time, you’re probably out of luck.

Is This a License to Snoop?

If Microsoft is sending information about your processor and hard drive to their product activation center, are they also poking around the contents of your hard drive and reading your personal information? Is product activation an invasion of your privacy? Probably not. The information in the hardware hash is stuff like the serial numbers of your hard drive and processor and the type of video card and IDE adapter inside your computer. Even if you register as a Windows user at the same time you activate Windows, none of this information is related to your personal identity. Officially, Microsoft says, “At no time is personally identifiable information secretly gathered or submitted to Microsoft as part of activation. Product Activation is completely anonymous.” Several people have tried to disprove this claim, but none have been successful, so it’s probably best to accept the whole product activation scheme at face value. As far as anybody outside of Microsoft has been able to determine, they don’t collect any personal information from your computer. There’s no evidence that product activation does anything that isn’t described in Microsoft’s technical bulletins and marketing documents (www.microsoft.com/piracy/basics/activation). Its only purpose is to force everyone who wants to use Windows to pay for the software, and maybe to gather some statistical information about how many users are using different types of hardware. The only thing Microsoft wants from you is money for separate copies of Windows on every computer you install and use. If that’s not acceptable to you, switch to Linux or some other operating system.

What About Registration?

It’s easy to confuse activation and registration, but they’re not the same thing. They’re not even related. Activation is a required part of installing Windows XP that was designed to protect Microsoft from users who don’t want to pay for every copy of Windows that they use; registration is an optional process that supplies information about you and your computer to Microsoft’s sales, marketing, and technical support departments. The most important thing to know about registering Windows is that you don’t have to do it. If you do, you will send Microsoft your name, address, and telephone number; some information about how you use Windows; and if you choose, an inventory of the equipment inside your computer. This information could actually be useful if you ever ask Microsoft to help solve a problem, but Microsoft can also use it to support their market research and to send you advertising from Microsoft and other companies. It’s your choice. Windows won’t stop working if you don’t register, and you might reduce the amount of junk mail you receive. But it’s probably harmless. If you want Microsoft to send you new product announcements and other sales offers, or if you think the information you send will help improve the next generation of Microsoft products, go ahead and fill out the Registration Wizard. The rest of us will skip it, and we’ll be none the worse for it.