Evaluation Criteria. Before money is committed to a selected medium, it is desirable to review the medium’s viability against evaluation criteria. Is the decision maker being thorough, progressive (imaginative), measure-minded, practical, and optimistic? Thoroughness requires that all aspects of media selection be given full consideration. For maximum impact, the chosen medium should be progressive: it should have a unique way of doing the job. An example of progressiveness is putting a sample envelope of Maxwell House coffee in millions of copies of TV Guide. Because of postal regulations, this sampling could not be done in a magazine that is purchased primarily through subscriptions. But TV Guide is mainly a newsstand magazine. Measure-mindedness refers to more than just the number of exposures. It refers not only to frequency and timing in reaching the target audience but also to the quality of the audience; that is, to the proportion of heavy to light television viewers reached, proportion of men to women, working to nonworking women, and so on. Practicality requires choosing a medium on factual, not emotional, grounds. For example, it is not desirable to substitute a weak newspaper for a strong one just because the top management of the company does not agree with the editorial policy of the latter. Finally, the overall media plan should be optimistic in that it takes advantage of lessons learned from experience.

Advertising-Copy Strategy Copy refers to the content of an advertisement. In the advertising industry, the term is sometimes used in a broad sense to include the words, pictures, symbols, colors, layout, and other ingredients of an ad. Copywriting is a creative job, and its quality depends to a large extent on the creative ability of writers in the advertising agency or in the company. However, creativity alone may not produce good ad copy. A marketing strategist needs to have his or her own perspectives incorporated in the copy (what to say, how to say it, and to whom to say it) and needs to furnish information on ad objectives, product, target customers, competitive activity, and ethical and legal considerations. The creative person carries on from there. In brief, although copywriting may be the outcome of a flash of inspiration on the part of an advertising genius, it must rest on a systematic, logical, step-bystep presentation of ideas. This point may be illustrated with reference to Perrier, a brand of bottled water that comes from mineral springs located in southern France. In Europe, this product has been quite popular for some years; in the United States, however, it used to be available in gourmet shops only. In 1977, the company introduced the product to the U.S. market as a soft drink by tapping the adult user market with heavy advertising. Perrier’s major product distinction is that its water is naturally carbonated spring water. The product was aimed at the affluent adult population, particularly those concerned with diet and health, as a status symbol and a sign of maturity.

Perrier faced competition from two sources: regular soft drink makers and potential makers of mineral water. The company took care of its soft drink competition by segmenting the market on the basis of price (Perrier was priced 50 percent above the average soft drink) and thus avoided direct confrontation. In regard to competition from new brands of mineral water, Perrier’s association with France and the fact that it is constituted of naturally carbonated spring water were expected to continue as viable strengths. This information was used to develop ad copy for placement in high-fashion women’s magazines and in television commercials narrated by Orson Welles. The results were astonishing. In less than five years, Perrier became a major liquid drink in the U.S. market. Take another example. Back in 1998, packs of Thomas’ English Muffins carried the following announcement: “Coming Soon . . .New Package, Same Great Taste!” An illustration of the forthcoming design appeared along with the burst. This campaign set a new standard in postmodern promotion. Instead of simply crowing about itself, this package was actually heralding its own replacement. The new design showed up in stores about six weeks later. Essentially, ad copy constitutes an advertiser’s message to the customer. To ensure that the proper message gets across, it is important that there is no distortion of the message because of what in communication theory is called noise. Noise may emerge from three sources: (a) dearth of facts (e.g., the company is unaware of the unique distinctions of its product), (b) competitors (e.g., competitors make changes in their marketing mix to counter the company’s claims or position), and (c) behavior traits of the customers or audience. Failure to take into account the last source of noise is often the missing link in developing ad copy. It is not safe to assume that one’s own perspectives on what appeals to the audience are accurate. It is desirable, therefore, to gain, through some sort of marketing research, insights into behavior patterns of the audience and to make this information available to the copywriter. For example, a 1993 Research International Organization (RIO) study of teenagers in 26 countries provides the following clues for making an effective appeal to young customers.

1. Never talk down to a teenager. While “hip” phraseology and the generally flippant tone observed in the teenager’s conversation may be coin of the realm from one youngster to another, it comes across as phony, foolish, and condescending when directed at him or her by an advertiser. Sincerity is infinitely more effective than cuteness. Entertainment and attention-getting approaches by themselves do little to attract a teenager to the merits of a product. In fact, they often dissuade the youngster from making a purchase decision.

2. Be totally, absolutely, and unswervingly straightforward. Teenagers may act cocky and confident in front of adults, but most of them are still rather unsure of themselves and are wary of being misled. They are not sure they know enough to avoid being taken advantage of, and they do not like to risk looking foolish by falling for a commercial gimmick. Moreover, teenagers as a group are far more suspicious of things commercial than adults are. Advertising must not only be noticed; it must be believed.

3. Give the teenager credit for being motivated by rational values. When making a buying selection, adults like to think they are doing so on the basis of the benefits the product or service offers. Teenagers instinctively perceive what’s “really there” in an offering. Advertising must clearly expose for their consideration the value a product or service claims to represent.

4. Be as personal as possible. Derived from the adult world of marketing, this rule has an exaggerated importance with teenagers. In this automated age, with so many complaining of being reduced en masse to anonymity, people are becoming progressively more aware of their own individuality. The desire to be personally known and recognized is particularly strong with young people, who are urgently searching for a clear sense of their own identity. Findings from communications research are helpful in further refining the attributes of ad copy that an advertising strategist needs to spell out for the copywriter.

Source Credibility. An ad may show a celebrity recommending the use of a product. It is hoped that this endorsement will help give the ad additional credibility, credibility that will be reflected in higher sales. Research on the subject has shown that an initially credible source, such as Miss America claiming to use a certain brand of hair spray, is more effective in changing the opinion of an audience than if a similar claim is made by a lesserknown source, such as an unknown homemaker. However, as time passes, the audience tends to forget the source or to dissociate the source from the message. Some consumers who might have been swayed in favor of a particular brand because it was recommended by Miss America may revert to their original choice, whereas those who did not initially accept the homemaker’s word may later become favorably inclined toward the product she is recommending. The decreasing importance of the source behind a message over time has been called the sleeper effect. Several conclusions can be drawn from the sleeper effect. In some cases, it may be helpful if the advertiser is disassociated as much as possible from the ad, particularly when the audience may perceive that a manufacturer is trying to push something. On the other hand, when source credibility is important, advertisements should be scheduled so that the source may reappear to reinforce the message. An example of source credibility is provided by Nike. It attracted popular sports heroes as credible sources to build new product lines and marketing campaigns around them. Consumers seemed to respond best to athletes who combined a passion to win with a maverick disregard for convention: “outlaws with morals.”

Balance of Argument. When preparing copy, there is a question of whether only the good and distinctive features of a brand should be highlighted or whether its demerits should be mentioned as well. Traditionally, the argument has been, “Put your best foot forward.” In other words, messages should be designed to emphasize only the favorable aspects of a product. Recent research in the field of communication has questioned the validity of indiscriminately detailing the favorable side. It has been found that

1. Presenting both sides of an issue is more effective than giving only one side among individuals who are initially opposed to the point of view being presented.

2. Better-educated people are more favorably affected by presentation of both sides; poorly educated persons are more favorably affected by communication that gives only supporting arguments.

3. For those already convinced of the point of view presented, the presentation of both sides is less effective than a presentation featuring only those items favoring the general position being advanced.

4. Presentation of both sides is least effective among the poorly educated who are already convinced of the position advocated.

5. Leaving out a relevant argument is more noticeable and detracts more from effectiveness when both sides are presented than when only the side favorable to the proposition is being advanced. These findings have important implications for developing copy. If one is trying to reach executive customers through an ad in the Harvard Business Review, it probably is better to present both favorable and unfavorable qualities of a product. On the other hand, for such status products and services as Rolex diamond watches and Chanel No. 5 perfume, emphasis on both pros and cons can distort the image. Thus, when status is already established, a simple message is more desirable.

Message Repetition. Should the same message be repeated time and again? According to learning theory, reinforcement over time from different directions increases learning. It has been said that a good slogan never dies and that repetition is the surest way of getting the message across. However, some feel that, although the central theme should be maintained, a message should be presented with variations. Communication research questions the value of wholesale repetition. Repetition, it has been found, leads to increased learning up to a certain point. Thereafter, learning levels off and may, in fact, change to boredom and loss of attention. Continuous repetition may even counteract the good effect created earlier.

Rational versus Emotional Appeals. Results of studies on the effect of rational and emotional appeals presented in advertisements are not conclusive. Some studies show that emotional appeals have definite positive results. However, arousing emotions may not be sufficient unless the ad can rationally convince the subject that the product in question will fulfill a need. It appears that emphasis on one type of appeal rational or emotional is not enough. The advertiser must strike a balance between emotional and rational appeals. For example, Procter & Gamble’s Crest toothpaste ad, “Crest has been recommended by the American Dental Association,” has a rational content; but its reference to cavity prevention also excites emotions. Similarly, a Close-up toothpaste ad produced for Lever Brothers is primarily emotional in nature: “Put your money where your mouth is.” However, it also has an economic aspect: “Use Close-up both as a toothpaste and mouthwash.” An example of how emotional appeal complemented by service created a market niche for an unknown company is provided by Singapore Airlines. Singapore is a Southeast Asian nation barely larger than Cleveland.

Many airlines have tried to sell the notion that they have something unique to offer, but not many have succeeded. Singapore Airlines, however, thrives mainly on the charm of its cabin attendants, who serve passengers with warm smiles and copious attention. A gently persuasive advertising campaign glamorizes the attendants and tries to convey the idea of in-flight pleasure of a lyrical quality. Most of the airline’s ads are essentially large, soft-focus color photographs of various attendants. A commercial announces: “Singapore girl, you look so good I want to stay up here with you forever.” Of course, its emotional appeals are duly supported by excellent service (rational appeals to complement emotional ones). The airline provides gifts, free cocktails, and free French wines and brandy even to economyclass passengers. Small wonder that it flies with an above-average load factor higher than that of any other major international carrier. In brief, emotional appeal can go a long way in the development of an effective ad campaign, but it must have rational underpinnings to support it.

Comparison Advertising. Comparison advertising refers to the comparison of one brand with one or more competitive brands by explicitly naming them on a variety of specific product or service attributes. Comparison advertising became popular in the early 1970s; today one finds comparison ads for all forms of goods and services. Although it is debatable whether comparative ads are more or less effective than individual ads, limited research on the subject indicates that in some cases comparative ads are more useful. Many companies have successfully used comparison advertising. One that stands out is Helene Curtis Industries. The company used comparison ads on television for its Suave brand of shampoo. The ads said: “We do what theirs does for less than half the price.” Competitors were either named or their labels were clearly shown. The message that Suave is comparable to top-ranking shampoos was designed to allay public suspicion that low-priced merchandise is somehow shoddy. The campaign was so successful that within a few years Suave’s sales surpassed those of both Procter & Gamble’s Head & Shoulders and Johnson & Johnson’s Baby Shampoo in volume.

The company continues to use the same approach in its advertising today. Comparison advertising clearly provides an underdog with the chance to catch up with the leader. In using comparison advertising, a company should make sure that its claim of superiority will hold up in a court of law. More businesses today are counterattacking by suing when rivals mention their products in ads or promotions. For example, MCI has sought to stop an AT&T ad campaign (aimed at MCI) that claims that AT&T’s long-distance and other services are better and cheaper. It will be appropriate to mention here that in recent years, companies have come up with alternative promotional approaches that bypass the use of traditional media. For example, in the United Kingdom, Nestle’s Buitoni brand grew through programs that taught the English how to cook Italian food. The Body Shop gathered loyalty with its support of environmental and social causes. Cadbury funded a theme park tied to its history in the chocolate business. Haagen-Dazs opened posh ice-cream parlors and got itself featured by a name on the menus of fine restaurants. Hugo Boss and Swatch backed athletic or cultural events that became associated with their brands. At a time when promotional costs are rising and markets have fragmented, novel approaches for promoting the product in the ever more competitive world could be rewarding.